ὀχύρωμα

From the study of 2 Corinthians 10:4

Range of meaning

A fortification: a fortress, citadel, fortified place, or defensive wall. It comes from ochyros, 'firm, strong'. Used figuratively, it means anything a person shelters behind or trusts in for security. This is its only use in the New Testament.

Against the English

KJV/BSB/ESV/NIV have 'strongholds' and NASB has 'fortresses'. Both are accurate as words. The trouble is not the translation. It is the meaning 'stronghold' has picked up in some church vocabulary.

How it drifted

From the later twentieth century, especially in charismatic and 'spiritual warfare' teaching, 'stronghold' became a technical term for a demonic foothold: a territorial spirit over a city, or an entrenched bondage in a person's life that has to be 'pulled down' by declaration or binding prayer. That meaning does not come from Paul's word. It is a later system read back into this verse.

Used elsewhere in the period

The LXX uses ὀχύρωμα often for fortified cities and citadels. The closest parallel is Proverbs 21:22 LXX: 'A wise man went up against strong cities and tore down the stronghold (καθεῖλεν τὸ ὀχύρωμα) in which the ungodly had trusted.' That verse uses the same pairing of 'tear down' and 'stronghold', and the fortress is what the ungodly rely on. Philo (On the Confusion of Tongues 128–131) reads the Tower of Babel as a 'stronghold' built by persuasive arguments to turn the mind away from honouring God, and says it must be torn down. In Greek moral philosophy, Cynic and Stoic writers described the wise man's reasoning as his fortified wall (A. J. Malherbe's well-known study).

From the study of 1 Maccabees 5:27

Range of meaning

A fortified place: fortress, citadel, stronghold, walled town. Figuratively, a place of safety, as in 'the LORD is my stronghold'.

Against the English

KJV/Brenton 'forts' and WEB 'strongholds' are both accurate.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the Septuagint it renders Hebrew words for fortress such as mivtsar and metsudah (e.g. 2 Sam 22:2 in some Greek forms; Prov 21:22). Paul uses it figuratively in 2 Cor 10:4 for 'the tearing down of strongholds'. In 1 Maccabees it is frequent for Seleucid and local fortresses.

From the study of 1 Maccabees 5:29

Range of meaning

A fortified place: a stronghold, fortress, citadel or walled refuge. It can also mean fortifications in general.

Against the English

'Fortress' (KJV, Brenton) may suggest a purpose-built castle. 'Stronghold' (WEB) is closer, since the word covers any defended site, including a walled town.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the Greek Old Testament it translates Hebrew words such as mibtsar ('fortified city') and metsudah ('stronghold'), e.g. for David's stronghold. Paul uses it of 'strongholds' in 2 Cor 10:4, its only New Testament use. In 1 Macc 5:9 the Jews of Gilead flee 'to the stronghold of Dathema', and 5:11 says Timothy is preparing to take 'the stronghold'.