σκοτόω

From the study of Ephesians 4:18

Range of meaning

To darken or make dark. In the passive it means to be darkened or plunged into darkness, used of the sky, of the eyes (going blind or fainting), and figuratively of the mind and judgment.

Against the English

'Darkened' is accurate. What English can miss is the perfect tense: this is a condition already in place and still continuing, not a passing mood or a temporary confusion.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the NT the verb appears in Revelation 9:2 and 16:10 for literal darkening. Its close relative skotizō is used in Romans 1:21 ('their senseless heart was darkened'), which this verse closely echoes alongside mataiotēs ('futility', 4:17 / Rom 1:21 emataiōthēsan). The Septuagint uses the darkness-of-mind image for not knowing God (e.g. Ps 81[82]:5, 'they walk on in darkness'). In the Dead Sea Scrolls, the 'sons of darkness' are those outside God's truth.

From the study of Revelation 9:2

Range of meaning

To darken or make dark. The passive means 'to be darkened'. It is less common than the near-synonym skotizō, and the two are interchangeable.

Against the English

'Was darkened' is accurate in all the major versions.

Used elsewhere in the period

Rev 16:10: the beast's kingdom 'was darkened' under the fifth bowl, which parallels this fifth trumpet. Greek Exod 10:15: locusts covered the land 'and the land was darkened'. Joel 2:2, 10: the locust army brings 'a day of darkness', and 'the sun and moon are darkened'.

From the study of Revelation 16:10

Range of meaning

To darken, make dark, or plunge into darkness. It is used of physical darkness and also figuratively of darkened understanding.

Against the English

KJV: "was full of darkness". BSB, NIV and ESV: "was plunged into darkness". NASB and WEB: "became/was darkened". YLT: "did become darkened". All are fair. "Became darkened" stays closest to the Greek construction, which stresses a resulting state.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the New Testament: Rev 9:2 (the sun and air darkened by smoke from the abyss, in some manuscripts), Rev 16:10, and Eph 4:18, where the same participle describes people "darkened in their understanding". The background is the ninth plague in Egypt: "darkness over the land of Egypt, a darkness that can be felt" while Israel had light (Exod 10:21–23). It also recalls the darkening of sun and stars in prophetic oracles about the Day of the LORD (Isa 13:10; Joel 2:2, 31; Amos 5:18–20).