χαλκολίβανος

From the study of Revelation 2:18

Range of meaning

A rare word, attested only in Revelation (1:15; 2:18) and in later writers commenting on it. The first part is clearly chalkos, copper or bronze. The second part is uncertain. Proposals include libanos 'frankincense' (bronze the colour of incense), Hebrew laban 'white' (white-hot or pale bronze), 'Lebanon bronze', or a garbled klibanos 'furnace' (furnace-refined bronze, compare 1:15 'as if refined in a furnace'). BDAG classes it as a metal or alloy of uncertain exact nature, 'fine brass/bronze'.

Against the English

KJV and YLT have 'fine brass'. WEB has 'burnished brass'. ESV, NASB and NIV have 'burnished bronze', and BSB and NLT have 'polished bronze'. All are reasonable guesses at a gleaming copper alloy. 'Polished' or 'burnished' brings in the sense of 'refined in a furnace' from 1:15.

How it drifted

In 1611 'brass' meant copper alloys in general, bronze included. Today it means one particular yellow, rather cheap alloy, so KJV's 'fine brass' now sounds less impressive than intended.

Used elsewhere in the period

Ezek 1:7 (feet of the living creatures 'gleaming like burnished bronze') and Dan 10:6 (LXX 'like gleaming bronze') supply the biblical image. Inscriptions from Thyatira mention a guild of bronze-workers (chalkeis). Colin Hemer suggested chalkolibanos was a local trade name for a high-quality alloy (possibly copper with zinc) made there. This is plausible but unproven. The Latin Vulgate renders it aurichalcum, 'orichalc', a prized golden copper alloy.

From the study of Revelation 1:15

Range of meaning

A shining metal or alloy of very high quality. The word is found nowhere in Greek before Revelation (here and 2:18), so its meaning has to be worked out from its parts, later definitions and the Old Testament images behind it. The first part, chalkos, is copper or bronze. The second part is disputed: (1) libanos, 'frankincense', perhaps for a yellowish frankincense colour; (2) the Hebrew/Aramaic root lbn, 'white', giving 'white bronze', i.e. metal glowing white-hot; (3) a corruption of klibanos, 'furnace', giving 'furnace-bronze'. The Byzantine lexicon called the Suda (10th century) defines it as a kind of electrum (a gold-silver or gold-bronze alloy) more precious than gold.

Against the English

KJV/YLT 'fine brass'; WEB 'burnished brass'; BSB 'polished bronze'; ESV/NASB 'burnished bronze'; NIV simply 'bronze'. All are reasonable guesses. 'Brass' misleads modern readers (see drift). Words like 'polished' and 'burnished' bring in the shine that the Old Testament background requires, even though the Greek word itself doesn't say 'polished'.

How it drifted

Older English 'brass' covered any copper alloy, bronze included. Today 'brass' means a specific dull-yellow copper-zinc alloy used for fittings and instruments, which is smaller and duller than the gleaming metal John means.

Used elsewhere in the period

Not attested before Revelation. Its job here is to render the Hebrew prophets' imagery: Daniel 10:6 (arms and feet 'like the gleam of burnished bronze', Hebrew nechoshet qalal; Theodotion's Greek roughly 'like the appearance of gleaming bronze'); Ezekiel 1:7 (the living creatures' feet 'sparkled like burnished bronze'); Ezekiel 1:27 and 8:2 (the gleaming ḥashmal round the divine figure, Greek ēlektron); Ezekiel 40:3 (a man 'whose appearance was like bronze'). The Latin Vulgate renders it aurichalcum, a costly gold-coloured alloy whose name Latin speakers linked with aurum, 'gold'. Thyatira, the city addressed in 2:18 with the same word, had well-attested guilds of bronze-workers in its inscriptions.