אֹיֵב

From the study of Proverbs 24:17

Range of meaning

A participle (a verb used as a noun) from a root meaning 'to be hostile,' so 'one who acts as an enemy.' It is used of personal foes (Saul as David's enemy), national enemies, and in the Psalms the hostile people who plot against the singer. It means real, active hostility.

Against the English

'Enemy' is an accurate rendering. NLT's plural 'enemies' generalizes; the Hebrew reading tradition has the singular 'your enemy,' which keeps the personal, one-on-one feel.

Used elsewhere in the period

Exod 23:4 ('if you meet your enemy's ox or donkey going astray, you must bring it back'); Job 31:29 ('if I rejoiced at the ruin of him who hated me'); the Psalms' laments about enemies who 'rejoice over me' (Ps 35:19, 24; 38:16). The Babylonian Counsels of Wisdom also advises: 'Do not return evil to your adversary; requite with kindness the one who does evil to you.'

From the study of Isaiah 9:11

Range of meaning

The participle of a verb meaning 'to be hostile to'. So it means 'one who is hostile', an enemy, whether personal or national. It is the most common Hebrew word for enemy.

Against the English

'Enemies' is accurate in all the English versions.

Used elsewhere in the period

It is used throughout the Hebrew Bible, often paired with צַר (tsar) as here. Examples are Deuteronomy 32:27 and Psalm 27:2. The pairing is standard in Hebrew poetry.

From the study of Psalm 143:9

Range of meaning

A participle of a verb meaning 'to be hostile': an enemy, a foe, a person or group in active hostility. Used of personal adversaries, national enemies and occasionally of God acting as enemy.

Against the English

'Enemies' is fine. The participle form means people acting in hostility now, not a general category.

Used elsewhere in the period

Very common in the Psalms of lament (Ps 3, 6, 13, 18, 31). In 143:3 the singular 'the enemy' pursues and crushes; v. 12 asks God to 'cut off my enemies' as an act of his loyal love.