אַ֫יִל

From the study of Isaiah 61:3

Range of meaning

Large, prominent trees, especially terebinths or oaks. The same spelling also means 'ram' and, by extension, 'leader' or 'chief' (Exod 15:15, 'the chiefs of Moab'). The basic idea seems to be something strong and prominent.

Against the English

BSB, NIV, ESV, and NASB have 'oaks', and KJV, WEB, and YLT have 'trees'. Both are reasonable, since terebinth and oak were not always sharply distinguished. 'Trees' loses the sense of size and permanence.

Used elsewhere in the period

Isa 1:29–30 says: 'you will be ashamed of the terebinths ('êlîm) that you desired… you will be like a terebinth whose leaf withers'. These were trees connected with illegitimate worship. Isa 57:5 likewise condemns those 'who burn with lust among the terebinths'. The Vulgate ('fortes iustitiae', 'the mighty ones of righteousness') takes the word as 'strong men'.

From the study of Isaiah 34:6

Range of meaning

ʾayil: a ram, but also 'leader, mighty one' (Exod 15:15; Ezek 17:13; 2 Kgs 24:15). ʿattud: a he-goat, the male that leads the flock, and figuratively a chief (Isa 14:9; Jer 50:8; Zech 10:3).

Against the English

English 'rams' and 'goats' sound only like farm animals. To the first hearers the same words also suggested 'nobles' and 'chieftains'.

How it drifted

English has no animal words that also mean 'ruler', so translations cannot keep both senses.

Used elsewhere in the period

Ezek 39:18 explains the image directly: 'You shall eat the flesh of the mighty and drink the blood of the princes of the earth, of rams, of lambs, and of he-goats, of bulls.' In Isa 34:7 the list continues with wild oxen and 'mighty ones' (ʾabbirim), another word that can describe both animals and warriors.

From the study of Isaiah 1:29

Range of meaning

Several words share the spelling אַיִל: 'ram', 'pillar or doorpost', 'leader or mighty one', and 'large tree' (terebinth, Pistacia atlantica, or a big oak). Related tree words are אֵלָה (elah, 'terebinth', used in v. 30) and אַלּוֹן (allon, 'oak'). The exact botanical species is uncertain. The point is a large, shady, conspicuous tree.

Against the English

KJV, ESV and WEB say 'oaks'. NIV and BSB say 'sacred oaks', adding 'sacred' to show the religious meaning. NLT turns the line into explicit idol-worship. The Septuagint already renders it 'idols'.

How it drifted

Without the added word, a modern reader hears 'oaks' as scenery or landscaping. In Israel, prominent trees were known places of worship.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the patriarchal stories, great trees mark sites where God appeared (Gen 12:6, the oak of Moreh; Gen 18:1, the oaks of Mamre; Judg 6:11). By the 8th century the prophets attack worship 'under every green tree' (Deut 12:2; Hos 4:13, 'under oak, poplar and terebinth, because their shade is good'; Jer 2:20). Isa 57:5 uses the same word: 'you who burn with lust among the elim, under every green tree.' Isa 61:3 turns it around: God's restored people will be called 'oaks (elei) of righteousness.' Some scholars hear a possible sound-play with elim, 'gods' (Exod 15:11), but this is suggestive, not certain.