סְלִיחָה

From the study of Psalm 130:4

Range of meaning

Pardon, forgiveness: releasing someone from guilt that has been incurred, so the offense is no longer held against them. The noun appears only three times: here, Nehemiah 9:17 ('a God of forgivenesses', in the plural) and Daniel 9:9 ('to the Lord our God belong compassion and forgivenesses'). All three are prayers of confession that look at God's character. The root verb sālaḥ occurs about 46 times. Its subject is always God, or the passive 'it will be forgiven' with God understood as the one forgiving. In the Hebrew Bible people never 'sālaḥ' one another. For forgiveness between people Hebrew uses other words, such as nāśāʾ ('lift, bear away' guilt).

Against the English

English 'forgiveness' covers God forgiving people, people forgiving each other, and even a lender forgiving a debt. Its everyday modern sense leans toward an inner release of resentment. Sālaḥ / səlîḥâ is narrower and higher: it is the divine prerogative of cancelling guilt-liability before God. The English is accurate, but it does not show that this word is reserved for God.

How it drifted

The drift is mild. It comes from the English word's broad use for interpersonal and emotional letting-go, which this Hebrew word never covers.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the sacrificial laws of Leviticus 4–5 and Numbers 15, the priest 'makes atonement for him, and it will be forgiven him' (wənislaḥ lô). The priest performs the rite, but the forgiving is God's. In Solomon's temple prayer, 1 Kings 8:39–40, God is asked to 'forgive' (wəsālaḥtā) 'so that they may fear you (ləmaʿan yîrāʾûkā) all the days they live in the land'. This is the same pairing of forgiveness and fear as Psalm 130:4. Psalm 86:5 calls God sallāḥ, 'ready to forgive'. The Septuagint translates the noun here as hilasmos ('means of atonement, propitiation'), a word later used in 1 John 2:2 and 4:10. Some scholars connect the root with Akkadian salāḫu, 'to sprinkle', which would suggest ritual cleansing, but that link is uncertain (HALOT).

From the study of Daniel 9:9

Range of meaning

'Forgiveness, pardon.' The noun is rare and appears only in later books: Ps 130:4 ('with you is the forgiveness'), Neh 9:17 ('a God of forgivenesses'), and here. The verb sālaḥ is common, especially in the sacrificial laws ('the priest shall make atonement for him, and he shall be forgiven', Lev 4:20, 26, 31) and in Solomon's temple prayer (1 Kgs 8:30–50). Throughout the Hebrew Bible the subject of sālaḥ is always God. Human beings are never said to sālaḥ one another.

Against the English

BSB and WEB have 'forgiveness', KJV and YLT keep the plural 'forgivenesses'. Modern English 'forgiveness' often means mainly an inner letting-go of resentment, something any wronged person can do. Səlîḥâ is narrower and weightier. It is a sovereign's pardon of an offence against himself, which cancels the guilt and restores the relationship, and in Hebrew only God gives it.

How it drifted

Popular and therapeutic uses of 'forgive' have made it mostly about the forgiver's emotional state. The Hebrew word is about the offender's legal and relational standing before God.

Used elsewhere in the period

Ps 130:4 is the closest parallel. The Greek there (LXX Ps 129:4) renders it hilasmos ('atonement, propitiation'), and Theodotion's Daniel likewise has hilasmoi here. Jerome's Latin uses propitiatio. These ancient translators heard the word in the setting of atonement. Later Jewish liturgy took the plural as the name of the penitential prayers Selichot. The plea 'O Lord, forgive' (ʾădōnāy səlāḥâ) in Dan 9:19 is the climax of this prayer.

From the study of Nehemiah 9:17

Range of meaning

Pardon or forgiveness, from the verb salakh, 'to pardon.' In the Hebrew Bible that verb always has God as its subject: people never 'salakh' one another. The word means God's act of releasing someone from guilt and its consequences so the relationship can go on. The plural here suggests pardon that is abundant and repeated.

Against the English

BSB and NIV turn the phrase into an adjective ('a forgiving God'), KJV and WEB into a readiness ('a God ready to pardon'), and YLT keeps the plural ('a God of pardons'). Modern readers often think of forgiveness as letting go of a feeling. Salakh is a sovereign act by the one who was wronged and has authority to punish.

How it drifted

In English 'forgive' has spread to cover human, emotional and therapeutic senses. Hebrew keeps salakh for God alone, so the Hebrew word is narrower and more weighty.

Used elsewhere in the period

The noun occurs only three times, all in late prayers: Neh 9:17; Ps 130:4 ('with you there is forgiveness, that you may be feared'); Dan 9:9 ('to the Lord our God belong compassions and forgivenesses'). The verb is central to Moses' plea and God's answer in Num 14:19–20 ('Pardon the iniquity of this people… I have pardoned according to your word'), which is the same episode as the 'appoint a head' rebellion in this verse.