πικρός

From the study of James 3:14

Range of meaning

Bitter in taste (bitter water, bitter herbs); figuratively harsh, sharp, resentful, causing pain. In Hebrew-influenced Greek it echoes the Hebrew 'mar' (bitter), used of bitter water at Marah and of bitter grief or hostility.

Against the English

All the major English versions say 'bitter', which is accurate. What readers can miss is the link to verses 11–12, where the same word is used of water.

Used elsewhere in the period

James 3:11 (same root): 'Does a spring pour forth from the same opening both sweet and bitter water?' Compare Exod 15:23 (Marah's bitter water); Eph 4:31 (πικρία, 'bitterness', listed with anger and slander); Heb 12:15 ('root of bitterness').

From the study of 4 Maccabees 18:20

Range of meaning

Its literal sense is bitter to the taste. From there it means painful, grievous or distressing (of days, grief or death). Of people it means harsh, cruel or savage, and of words cutting or sharp.

Against the English

Brenton and the WEB keep 'bitter' all three times, which preserves the wordplay. But 'bitter tyrant' in modern English sounds like a resentful, sour king. The Greek means a harsh, cruel one. NRSV-style versions also keep 'bitter' to save the repetition.

How it drifted

Today 'bitter' about a person usually means resentful or nursing a grudge. Older English, like the Greek, could mean harsh or cruel.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the Greek Old Testament: 'the day of the LORD is bitter' (Zeph 1:14); 'a bitter day' (Amos 8:10); bitter weeping (Isa 33:7). Greek writers called tyrants and enemies πικρός in the sense of 'cruel' (LSJ).