גָּדַף

From the study of Isaiah 37:23

Range of meaning

In the form used here it means to revile, insult, or speak abusively and contemptuously of someone, especially God. It is rare: Num 15:30; 2 Kgs 19:6, 22; Isa 37:6, 23; Ezek 20:27; Ps 44:16 ('the reviler'). The related nouns mean 'revilings, insults' (Isa 51:7; Zeph 2:8, the 'revilings' of Ammon).

Against the English

Most versions: 'blasphemed'. YLT: 'reviled'. 'Blasphemed' points the right way, since the target is God, but modern English 'blasphemy' suggests profanity, swearing, or a legal religious offence. 'Reviled' or 'insulted' is closer to the content.

How it drifted

English 'blaspheme' comes through Latin blasphemare from Greek blasphēmeō, which originally meant to slander or speak injuriously. Over the centuries it became a church and legal term for irreverent speech about sacred things, and it is now often linked with oaths and swearing.

Used elsewhere in the period

In Num 15:30 the person who sins 'with a high hand' (bəyād rāmāh, from the same root rûm as 'raised' in this verse) 'reviles the LORD.' That pairs defiant raising with reviling, exactly as here. The famous blasphemy case in Lev 24:10–16 uses different verbs (nāqab, qillēl), so this word should not simply be read through that law. Zeph 2:8 uses the noun for Ammon's insults against Judah.

From the study of Numbers 15:30

Range of meaning

To insult, taunt, revile, treat with scorn. It is used of the Assyrian officials who mocked the God of Israel during the siege of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 19:6, 22; Isa 37:6, 23), of enemies taunting the faithful (Ps 44:16), and of Israel's ancestors who 'reviled' God by their unfaithful acts (Ezek 20:27). The related noun giddufah/gidduf means taunts or insults.

Against the English

KJV 'reproacheth', ESV 'reviles', BSB/NIV/WEB 'blasphemes'. 'Blaspheme' is not wrong, but today it usually means irreverent speech or swearing with God's name. Here the insult is carried out by an action.

How it drifted

'Blasphemy' in modern English has narrowed to irreverent words about God or sacred things. The Hebrew word is about contempt in general, which can be expressed in words or in deeds.

Used elsewhere in the period

2 Kgs 19:22: 'Whom have you taunted and reviled (giddafta)?' Ezek 20:27 applies it to idolatrous acts. The Septuagint here translates it 'provokes' (paroxynei), which shows the Greek translators understood an affront by action rather than by speech.

From the study of 2 Kings 19:22

Range of meaning

In the Piel stem: to revile, insult, abuse with words. The related noun gidduph means 'insult'. It is usually aimed at God (Numbers 15:30; Ezekiel 20:27; Isaiah 37:6, 23) but can also target people (Zephaniah 2:8, Ammon's insults against Israel; Psalm 44:16).

Against the English

KJV, BSB, WEB and NIV 'blasphemed'; YLT 'reviled'; ESV 'reviled'. 'Revile' is the more exact sense. 'Blaspheme' is fair because the target is God, but to modern ears it brings in later ideas.

How it drifted

English 'blaspheme' comes through the Septuagint and Latin (blasphēmeō, blasphemare). Over time it narrowed to a religious-legal offence, often heard as profanity or misuse of God's name. The Hebrew is the act of insulting someone's honour.

Used elsewhere in the period

2 Kings 19:6 (Isaiah 37:6) uses the same verb for the Assyrian servants' words. Psalm 44:16 pairs it with ḥaraph ('the voice of the one who taunts and reviles'), just as here. In Numbers 15:30, someone who sins 'with a high hand' 'reviles YHWH'. The Septuagint renders it eblasphēmēsas.