ὅρκος

From the study of James 5:12

Range of meaning

An oath: the formal act or formula of swearing, and the binding obligation that results. In Greek thought the horkos was almost a sacred power that bound the swearer and brought divine punishment on perjury.

Against the English

“Oath” is accurate. Readers today may think only of courtroom or inauguration oaths, but in the first century oaths were part of everyday business and conversation.

Used elsewhere in the period

The Septuagint uses it for the binding oaths of Num 30:2–3 and for God’s oath to Abraham (cf. Luke 1:73; Heb 6:16–17, “an oath for confirmation is an end of every dispute”). The Mishnah tractates Shevuot (“Oaths”) and Nedarim (“Vows”) show detailed debate over which formulas were binding (e.g. m. Shevuot 4:13). Jesus’ attack on such hair-splitting appears in Matt 23:16–22.

From the study of Matthew 14:7

Range of meaning

A sworn statement that calls a deity to witness its truth or to enforce a promise, usually with a curse attached if it is broken. It can confirm a past fact (an oath of testimony) or bind a future act (a promissory oath, as here).

Against the English

English 'oath' is accurate. A modern reader, though, may hear little more than an emphatic promise. In the ancient world an oath put the speaker's honour and his standing before God on the line in public. The NLT's 'vow' blurs a distinction ancient Jews made: a vow was a promise made to God, while an oath called God as witness to a promise made to someone else.

Used elsewhere in the period

In the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament), horkos translates Hebrew shevuʿah. Leviticus 5:4–6 deals directly with someone who 'swears rashly with his lips to do evil or to do good' and provides confession and an offering for it. Jephthah's rash vow (Judges 11:30–39) is the classic biblical story of a thoughtless promise ending in a death. Philo (On the Decalogue 84–95) advises avoiding oaths almost entirely, and Josephus says the Essenes refused to swear (Jewish War 2.135). Matthew himself puts oaths under heavy suspicion: 'do not swear at all' (5:33–37) and the attack on casuistry about oaths (23:16–22).

From the study of Hebrews 6:17

Range of meaning

An oath: a solemn statement that calls on a higher power as witness, and usually as punisher if the oath is broken. In the ancient world it was the strongest guarantee a person could give.

Against the English

Every English version has "oath". Modern readers may think of a formality, like an oath of office or a courtroom oath. In the ancient setting an oath was a self-curse placed before the gods and was considered the final word in any dispute.

Used elsewhere in the period

Genesis 22:16 LXX: "By myself I have sworn, says the Lord" (the oath after the near-sacrifice of Isaac). It is recalled in Genesis 26:3, Psalm 104:9 LXX (= 105:9) and Luke 1:73 ("the oath he swore to our father Abraham"). Philo of Alexandria discusses the same verse at length (Allegorical Interpretation 3.203–208; On the Sacrifices of Abel and Cain 91–96). He argues that God swears by himself because nothing is greater, and that he gives oaths to support weak human faith, not because his word needs support.