παρακαλέω

From the study of Romans 12:1

Range of meaning

Literally 'call alongside'. In use it means to summon, to appeal or urge, to beg or plead, and to comfort or encourage. Context decides which.

Against the English

KJV 'beseech' sounds like timid begging. 'Exhort' sounds like preaching at people. 'Urge' (BSB, WEB, NIV) or 'appeal' (ESV) comes closest.

Used elsewhere in the period

Common in letters and official correspondence of the period for a formal request from someone with authority who chooses to ask rather than command. C. J. Bjerkelund's study (Parakalô, 1967) traced this use in papyri and diplomatic letters. Paul uses it the same way at the turning points of his letters (1 Thess 4:1; 1 Cor 1:10; Eph 4:1).

From the study of Matthew 5:4

Range of meaning

Literally 'to call to one's side.' From that come: summon, appeal to, urge or exhort, encourage, and comfort or console (BDAG lists all of these). The noun paraklēsis means encouragement or consolation, and paraklētos is one called alongside to help. When the subject is God, especially in the Septuagint of Isaiah, the word means God's act of consoling his people by restoring them, not only by speaking kind words.

Against the English

'Comforted' is the standard rendering and is right. But modern English 'comfort' leans toward feeling soothed: a hug, a reassuring word, being made emotionally comfortable. The English word came from Latin confortare, 'to make strong', and in Wycliffe's and Tyndale's day it still carried the idea of strengthening. The Isaianic background carries more than soothing: God himself steps in, and the cause of the grief is answered.

How it drifted

'Comfort' softened over the centuries from 'strengthen, support' to 'ease, soothe'. Note also the modern sense of 'comfortable', meaning physical ease.

Used elsewhere in the period

LXX Isa 40:1, 'Parakaleite, parakaleite ton laon mou', 'Comfort, comfort my people', the opening of the promise that Jerusalem's exile is over. Isa 61:2, 'parakalesai pantas tous penthountas', 'to comfort all who mourn'. Isa 66:13, 'as a mother comforts… so I will comfort you; in Jerusalem you will be comforted.' Sirach 48:24 says Isaiah 'comforted the mourners in Zion.' Luke 2:25: Simeon was 'waiting for the paraklēsis (consolation) of Israel', a phrase for the hoped-for restoration. Later rabbinic tradition even gives the Messiah the name Menahem, 'Comforter' (b. Sanhedrin 98b; late, but it shows where the idea went).

From the study of 2 Corinthians 2:7

Range of meaning

Literally 'to call to one's side'. The meanings overlap: to summon; to appeal, urge, exhort; to encourage, cheer; to comfort, console. The context decides which shade leads, but the others are often present too.

Against the English

'Comfort' (BSB, KJV, NIV, ESV) catches the consoling side but can sound passive and only emotional. The Greek also means to strengthen and put heart back into someone: encouragement that sets a person back on his feet.

How it drifted

English 'comfort' has softened from its Latin root (con-fortare, 'to strengthen') to 'soothe'. That makes the gap with parakaleō wider.

Used elsewhere in the period

LXX Isa 40:1, 'Comfort, comfort my people' (parakaleite). In 2 Cor 1:3–7 the verb and its noun paraklēsis appear about ten times ('the God of all comfort'). The next verse, 2:8, uses it in the other sense: 'I urge (parakalō) you to confirm your love.'